Note: The Introduction of even a small quantity of Methanol into the Thick smear will interfere with the lyses of the RBCs in the thick blood smears during staining.
Be sure that the thick smear is immersed but do not allow the water to cover any part of the thin smear. Otherwise, the thin smear will get decolorized. The various blood cells will be observed under the microscope as follows:. Hi, I am Ruhi Rana, the author of this Article. According to the principle of Romanwosky stain, nucleas of the cell should be stained blue while the cytoplasm stained red. Why is this different in Malaria parasite??
This is because the nucleus of malaria parasites contains the amino acids histones which is acidophilic and therefore picks up eosin whilst the cytoplasm contains aspartate which is basophilic and therefore picks up the methylene blue.
Why does nucleus of malaria parasite takes up the acidic dye and cytoplasm takes up the basic dye. Please answer me.
The article is very nice and is very helpful. Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Skip to content. Physiology: the word physiology derived from a Greek word for study of nature. It is the study of how the body and its part work or function.
Although the external environmental changes constantly, the internal environment of a healthy body remains the same with in normal limits. Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms ranging from control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones that are secreted by various organs directly into the blood streams.
Some of the functions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body temperature, breathing and heart rate. The most common elements in living organism are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus and sulfur.
All life depends on the many chemical activities of cells. Some of the basic functions of cell are: growth, metabolism, irritability and reproduction. Tissue: tissue is made up of many similar cells that perform a specific function.
The various tissues of the body are divided in to four groups. These are epithelial, connective, nervous and muscle tissue. Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels and body cavities. Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part of skin, bone and tendons.
Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of stimuli and transmits nerve impulses. Organ: - Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific function. For example: Respiratory system contains several organs.
Organism level: - The various organs of the body form the entire organism. But once you have understood the basic word roots, combining word forms, prefixes and suffix you will find that anatomical terminologies are not as difficult as you first imagined. Anatomical Position. Anatomical positions are universally accepted as the starting points for positional references to the body. In anatomical position the subject is standing erect and facing the observer, the feet are together, and the arms are hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward.
Source: Carola, R. Relative means the location of one part of the body is always described in relation to another part of the body. The leg is supper to the foot. Inferior caudal Toward the feet. The foot is inferior to the leg. Anterior ventral Toward the front part of the body.
The nose is anterior to the ears. Posterior dorsal Towards the back of the body. The ears are posterior to the nose. Medial Towards the midline of the body. The nose is medial to the eyes. Lateral Away from the midline of the body. The eyes are lateral to the nose. Proximal Toward nearer the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb. The shoulder is proximal to the wrist. Distal Away farther from the trunk of the body or the attached end of a limb.
The wrist is distal to the forearm. Superficial Nearer the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the heart. Deep Farther from the surface of the body. The heart is deeper to the ribs. Peripheral Away from the central axis of the body.
Peripheral nerves radiate away from the brain and spinal cord. Body parts Regions The body can generally be described to have areas of: Axial body part: - It is the part of the body near the axis of the body. This includes head, neck, thorax chest , abdomen, and pelvis.
This includes the upper and lower extremities. It is customary to subdivide the abdominal area into nine regions or more easily in to four quadrants. Figure 1. This helps for further identification of specific areas. Transverse plane: - divides the body into upper and lower body section. Oblique plane: - divides the body obliquely into upper and lower section. The two main body cavities are the larger ventral anterior and the smaller, dorsal posterior body cavity.
The ventral body cavity constitutes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino-pelvic body cavity. The Thoracic cavity houses lung and heart. It consists of the right and left pleural cavities and mediastinum the portion of tissues and organs that separates the left and right lung.
Abdomino-pelvic Cavity extends from the diaphragm inferior to the floor of the pelvis. It is divided into superior abdominal and inferior pelvic cavity by imaginary line passing at upper pelvis. Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, intestine, liver, spleen and gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, rectum, and portions of the reproductive organs.
Figure: 1. When structure and function coordinated the body gets a relative stability. This phenomenon is called: a Anatomical integrity b Physiological stablity c Homeostasis d Hemostasis e Body stasis 3. Which of the following is not the correct description of anatomical position?
A plane that divided the body into anterior and posterior parts is: - a Medial plane b Coronal or frontal plane c Sagital plane d Transverse plane e Oblique plane 5.
Cytology: - It is a branch of science concerned with a study of cells Cell Theory explains about a All living organisms are composed of cell and cell products. Inclusions: they are the secretions and storage products of cells.
Extra cellular materials are also referred to as the matrix, which are substances external to the cell surface.
Figure: 2. It keeps the cell and its contents separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a double layered measuring about 4. The bi-layer is self-sealing. If a needle is injected and pulled out, it automatically seals. Functions: - 1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid.
Separate cell from one another 3. Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction can occur. Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells. It also let some things in and keeps others out. The quality selective permeability Movement across-cell membrane Movements a cross membrane takes place in two ways.
These are passive and active movements. Passive movement uses energy whereas active movement consumes energy in the form of ATP. Simple diffusion, the random movements of molecules from area of high concentration to the area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli of lung b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which are not soluble in lipid need protein channel to pass through the plasma membrane.
No direct energy needed. Example: - Amino acid passes through the cell membrane. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring to the passage of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to lower water concentration. Filtration, small molecules pass through selectively permeable membrane in response to force of pressure.
Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process of urine formation. Active movements across membranes Substances move through a selectively permeable membrane from areas of low concentration on side of a membrane to an area of higher concentration on the other side.
This is against concentration gradient. Therefore, it requires energy. This process requires the use of ATP. One example of such processes is Sodium — potassium pump and calcium pump. In this process all follows similar process. It includes: Pinocytoss — cell drinking Receptor — mediated Endocytosis- Endocytosis with the help of receptor. Phagocytosis- cell eating. It is thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and a series of minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton.
It also contains solid components, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic substances. The majority of organic substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are particles that remain suspended in the surrounding medium. Contain the hereditary factor in the cell. Most cell contain single nucleus but some like matured Red Blood cell do not contain. However Muscle cell contain several nucleuses. The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double membrane called nuclear membrane.
Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm. In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the nucleus is karylymph neucleoplasm , which contain the genetic material called chromosome. Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound mass called nucleolus. It is continuous with the nuclear membrane.
It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products are transported from one portion of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is considered as intracellular transportation. It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Endoplasmic reticulum ER is divided in to two. These are, granular E. Containing granule and involving in synthesis of protein and agranular E. It consist membranous sacs. It generates energy.
Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is smooth upper membrane and the other is arranged with series of folds called cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane is the matrix.
The lysosomal enzyme believed to be synthesized in the granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex. It also contains DNA that controls their replication. Centrosmes are made of microtubules, which seam drinking straws. They are Involved in the movement of chromosome during cell division. When they are beating forms rhythmic movement. They are found in female reproductive organ and upper respiratory tube. Cancer cells are different.
They lack the controlling mechanism. Some of the risk factors for cancer occurrence are radiation, chemicals, extreme pressure and hormonal therapy. Diffusion b. Exocytosis c. Facilitated diffusion d. Active transport e. Endocytosis 2 The most important structural elements of the cyto- skeleton are: - a. Microfilaments b. Vacuoles c. Ribosome d. Asters e. Microtubules 3 Mitochondria functions in the synthesis of a.
DNA b. MRNA c. ATP d. Is the site of ribosomal RNA synthesis b. Has a surrounding structure c. Contains ATP used in chromosome replication d. It is smaller in secretary cell than in non-secretary. Specifies the chemical structure of enzymes. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Cilia c. Centrioles d. Flagella e. But in multicultural organisms, they do not function in isolation. They work together in-group of similar cells called tissue.
Tissue is a group of similar cell and their intercellular substance that have a similar embryological origin and function together to perform a specialized activity. A science that deals with the study of a tissue is Histology. These are epithelial, connective, muscular, and Nervous tissue. Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of layers and cell shape. Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys, blood vessels and lymph vessels.
It lines the gastro-intestinal tract gall bladder, excretory ducts of many glands. Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on presence of keratin. Non-Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is found in wet surface that are subjected to considerable wear and tear. Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina. In Keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of material containing keratin.
Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists friction and bacterial invasion. Its main function is secretion. It functions in protection and secretion. Transitional epithelium The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and rounded rather than flat. The feature allows the tissue to be stretched with out breakage. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized epithelial cell.
Glands can be classified into exocrine and endocrine according to where they release their secretion. Their main products are mucous, oil, wax, perspiration and digestive enzyme. Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The secretions of endocrine glands are always hormones. Hormones are chemicals that regulate various physiological activities. Classification of exocrine glands They are classified by their structure and shape of the secretary portion.
Further more if the duct does not branch it is referred as a simple gland and if it branch's it is compound gland. Mesenchyme is the tissue from which all other connective tissue eventually arises. It is located beneath the skin and along the developing bone of the embryo.
Adult connective tissue It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth. Found where there is loose connective tissue. It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface of the heart, in the marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints and behind the eye ball.
Exists in areas where tensions are exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven with out regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions. This occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone and membrane capsules. In other areas dense connective tissue adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel arrangement. They stretch and snap back in to original shape. It also forms vocal cord. It helps to form a delicate supporting storma for many organs including liver, spleen and lymph nodes.
It also helps to bind together the fibers cells of smooth muscle tissue. It consists of a dense network of collagenous fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondriotin sulfate. The strength is because of collagenous fibers. The cells of a matured cartilage are called chondrocyte. The surface of a cartilage is surrounded by irregularly arranged dense connective tissue called perichondrium.
Found at joints over long bones as articlar cartilage and forms costal cartilage at ventral end of ribs. It also forms nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchial tubes. It forms embryonic skeleton, reinforce respiration, aids in free movement of joints and assists rib cage to move during breathing. Fibro cartilage: they are found at the symphysis pubis, in the inter-vertebral discs and knee. It provides support and protection.
Elastic cartilage: in elastic cartilage the chondrocyte are located in thread like network of elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage provides strength and elasticity and maintains the shape of certain organs like epiglottis, larynx, external part of the ear and Eustachian tube. The osseous tissue together with cartilage and joints it comprises the skeletal system. It contains intercellular substance plasma. Plasma is a straw colored liquid, consists water and dissolved material.
The formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The fibrous characteristics of a blood revealed when clotted. Classification of muscles is made by structure and function. Muscle tissues are grouped in to skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue. It is involuntary and non-striated. These are the neurons and the neuroglia.
Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse. Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
It contains 3 basic portions. These are cell body, axons and dendrites. Neuroglias are cells that protect, nourish and support neurons. Clinically they are important because they are potential to replicate and produce cancerous growths. They line body cavities, cover surfaces, connect, or separate regions, structures and organs of the body. The three kinds of membranes are mucous, serous and synovial. It is an epithelial layer.
Mucous membranes line the entire gastro intestine, respiratory excretory and reproductive tracts and constitute a lining layer of epithelium. The connective tissue layer of mucous membrane is lamina propra.
It lines body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior. Covers the organs that lie with in the cavity. Serosa is composed of parietal layer pertaining to be outer and visceral layer pertaining to be near to the organ. Pleura and pericardium are serous membrane that line thoracic and heart cavity respectively.
The epithelial layer of a serious membrane secret a lubricating fluid called serious fluid. The fluid allows organs to glide one another easily. Therefore, it is not epithelial membrane. It lines the cavities of the freely movable joints. Like serious membrane it lines structures that do not open to the exterior. Synovial membranes secret synovial fluid that lubricate articular cartilage at the ends of bones as they move at joints.
Unicellular glands composed of columnar cells that secrete mucous are known as:- a Cilia b Microvilli c Goblet cell d Endocrine glands e Basal cell 2.
A group of similar cell that has a similar embryological origin and operates together to perform a specialized activity is called:- a Organ b Tissue c System d Organ system e Organism 3.
Which of the following is involuntary and striated? Which tissue is characterized by the presence of cell bodies, dendrites and axons? These include hair, nails, and several types of glands. The system functions in protection, in the regulation of body temperature, in the excretion of waste materials, in the synthesis of vitamin D3 with the help of sunrays, and in the reception of various stimuli perceived as pain, pressure and temperature.
Skin has 3 main parts. These are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that is made of stratified squamous epithelium.
It has no blood supply. Epidermis contains strata. These are stratum cornium, lucidium, granulosum, spinosum and basale, Stratum cornium is the outer, dead, flat, Keratinized and thicker layer.
Stratum lucidium is next to stratum cornium. Many of these alterations are now incorporated into WHO-defined criteria for diagnostic evaluation as reviewed here. Given the growing number of these alterations, small sequencing panels that focus on a limited number of genes may not be sufficient, especially in the lymphoid malignancies.
Moreover, increased discovery of clinically important mutations and structural variations not detectable by cytogenetics, FISH, or small gene panels such as copy-number changes, amplifications, deletions, and gene fusions begets the need for means to comprehensively evaluate molecular alterations of a variety of types in clinical practice. Further improvements in next-generation sequencing technologies reviewed by Sheikine et al are expected to allow evaluation of mutations across the entire coding regions of hundreds to thousands of genes while also providing information on copy-number status and gene fusions in a clinically relevant timeframe.
Given the large number of patients required to evaluate the effects of most genetic alterations on clinical outcome, it is very likely that the results of ongoing retrospective and prospective studies of cohorts of leukemia and lymphoma patients will be required to modify how genetic analyses are incorporated into clinical practice beyond diagnostic purposes in the future.
In addition to improving clinical detection of known genetic alterations for diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic purposes, further efforts to systematically sequence known recurrently mutated genes and characterize exomes, genomes, and transcriptomes in an unbiased fashion are very likely to produce further examples of disease-defining alterations in hematologic malignancies. There are now emerging examples of recurrent mutations in the noncoding genome resulting in the ectopic expression and activation of oncogenes as well as inactivation of tumor suppressors.
Although these currently have only been defined in T-ALL and CLL, 71 it is possible that such recurrent alterations may exist in a wide variety of hematopoietic malignancies.
As technologies and therapies improve, iterative ongoing research is needed in both common and uncommon disease entities to fully define the pathogenic and prognostic alterations important in hematologic malignancies.
Sign In or Create an Account. Sign In. Skip Nav Destination Content Menu. Close Abstract. Acute leukemia. Myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative disorders. Lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Article Navigation. Precision Hematology July 27, This Site. Google Scholar. Blood 4 : — Article history Submitted:.
Connected Content. A related article has been published: Introduction to a review series on precision hematology. A companion article has been published: The relative utilities of genome-wide, gene panel, and individual gene sequencing in clinical practice. A companion article has been published: Ethical considerations in genomic testing for hematologic disorders. View more. A companion article has been published: High-throughput sequencing for noninvasive disease detection in hematologic malignancies.
A companion article has been published: Genetic predisposition to hematologic malignancies: management and surveillance. View less. Cite Icon Cite. Table 1. Normal function. Technology used to detect. Genotype-directed therapies. AML t 8;21 q22;q View Large. Table 2. Table 3. Disease subtype. Table 4. The authors thank Ahmet Dogan for help in critical evaluation of this manuscript. Contribution: J. Conflict-of-interest disclosure: The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Search ADS. The revision to the World Health Organization classification of myeloid neoplasms and acute leukemia. Refinement of cytogenetic classification in acute myeloid leukemia: determination of prognostic significance of rare recurring chromosomal abnormalities among younger adult patients treated in the United Kingdom Medical Research Council trials.
Mutations and treatment outcome in cytogenetically normal acute myeloid leukemia. Please log in to add or reply to comments. Brian P. A storytelling game of spirit nukes and blood god wrestling smackdowns. I'm going to talk about the Week of Nightmares first, because that's the part of Time of Thin Blood that everyone remembers.
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