New York, NY: Rodale. It centers on how the atmosphere is very thin and how greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are making it thicker. The thicker atmosphere traps more infrared radiation, causing warming of the Earth. He includes several examples of problems caused by global warming. Penguins and polar bears are at risk because the glaciers they call home are quickly melting. Coral reefs are being bleached and destroyed when their inhabitants overheat and leave.
For example, many highways in Alaska are only frozen enough to be driven on fewer than 80 days of the year. In China and elsewhere, recordsetting floods and droughts are taking place. Hurricanes are on the rise. It is useful because it relies on scientific data that can be referred to easily and it provides a solid foundation for me to build on.
For example, it explains how carbon dioxide is produced and how it is currently affecting plants and animals. This evidence could potentially help my research on how humans are biologically affected by global warming.
It will also help me structure my essay, using its general information to lead into the specifics of my topic. For example, I could introduce the issue by explaining the thinness of the atmosphere and the effect of greenhouse gases, then focus on carbon dioxide and its effects on organisms.
A concise description of the work. Relevant commentary. If you write an evaluative bibliography, your comments should be relevant to your purpose and audience. To achieve relevance, consider what questions a potential reader might have about the sources. Consistent presentation. All annotations should be consistent in content, sentence structure, and format. If one annotation is written in complete sentences, they should all be.
Decide what sources to include. Though you may be tempted to include every source you find, a better strategy is to include only those sources that you or your readers may find useful in researching your topic.
Is this source relevant to your topic? Is it general or specialized? Are the author and the publisher or sponsor reputable? Does the source present enough evidence? Does it show any particular bias? Does the source reflect current thinking or research? Decide whether the bibliography should be descriptive or evaluative. Read carefully. To quickly determine whether a source is likely to serve your needs, first check the publisher or sponsor; then read the preface, abstract, or introduction; skim the table of contents or the headings; and read the parts that relate specifically to your topic.
Research the writer, if necessary. In any case, information about the writer should take up no more than one sentence in your annotation. Summarize the work. Sumarize it as objectively as possible: even if you are writing an evaluative annotation, you can evaluate the central point of a work better by stating it clearly first. You may find, however, that some parts are useful while others are not, and your evaluation should reflect that mix.
Ways of organizing an annotated bibliography. Depending on their purpose, annotated bibliographies may or may not include an introduction. State scope. List first List second List third List final alphabeti- alphabeti- alphabeti- alphabeti- cal entry, cal entry, cal entry, cal entry, and anno- and anno- and anno- and anno- tate it. Sometimes an annotated bibliography needs to be organized into several subject areas or genres, periods, or some other category ; if so, the entries are listed alphabetically within each category.
Category 2 alphabetically, and annotate them. List entries Explain category 2. To read an example annotated bibliography, go to digital. You may be required to include an abstract in a report or as a preview of a presentation you plan to give at an academic or professional conference. This chapter provides tips for writing three common kinds: informative, descriptive, and proposal. That one paragraph must mention all the main points or parts of the paper: a description of the study or project, its methods, the results, and the conclusions.
Here is an example of the abstract accompanying a seven-page essay that appeared in in the Journal of Clinical Psychology: The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined.
The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider when assessing symptom reporting. Implications for determining the effects of boredom proneness on psychological- and physicalhealth symptoms, as well as the application in clinical settings, are discussed.
They usually do not summarize the entire paper, give or discuss results, or set out the conclusion or its implications. The findings and their application in clinical settings are discussed.
You prepare them to persuade someone to let you write on a topic, pursue a project, conduct an experiment, or present a paper at a scholarly conference; often the abstract is written before the paper itself.
Titles and other aspects of the proposal deliberately reflect the theme of the proposed work, and you may use the future tense to describe work not yet completed.
Here is a possible proposal for doing research on boredom and health problems: Undergraduate students will complete the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist.
A multiple analysis of covariance will be performed to determine the relationship between boredom-proneness total scores and ratings on the five subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist ObsessiveCompulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression. An informative abstract includes enough information to substitute for the report itself; a descriptive abstract offers only enough information to let the audience decide whether to read further; and a proposal abstract gives an overview of the planned work.
Objective description. Abstracts present information on the contents of a report or a proposed study; they do not present arguments about or personal perspectives on those contents. Unless you are writing a proposal abstract, you should write the paper first. You can then use the finished work as the guide for the abstract, which should follow the same basic structure. Copy and paste key statements. Copy and paste those sentences into a new document to create a rough draft.
Pare down the rough draft. Introduce the overall scope of your study, and include any other information that seems crucial to understanding your work. Conform to any length requirements. In general, an informative abstract should be at most 10 percent as long as the original and no longer than the maximum length allowed.
Descriptive abstracts should be shorter still, and proposal abstracts should conform to the requirements of the organization calling for the proposal. Ways of organizing an abstract [An informative abstract] State conclusions of study. State Summarize nature of method of study. State implications of study. To read an example abstract, go to digital. We read cookbooks to find out how to make brownies; we read textbooks to learn about history, biology, and other academic topics.
And as writers, we read our own drafts to make sure they say what we mean. In other words, we read for many different purposes. Following are some strategies for reading with a critical eye.
It always helps to approach new information in the context of what we already know. List any terms or phrases that come to mind, and group them into categories. Then, or after reading a few paragraphs, list any questions that you expect, want, or hope to be answered as you read, and number them according to their importance to you.
Finally, after you read the whole text, list what you learned from it. Preview the text. Start by skimming to get the basic ideas; read the title and subtitle, any headings, the first and last paragraphs, the first sentences of all the other paragraphs. Study any visuals.
Think about your initial response. Read the text to get a sense of it; then jot down brief notes about your initial reaction, and think about why you reacted as you did. What aspects of the text account for this reaction? Highlight key words and phrases, connect ideas with lines or symbols, and write comments or questions in the margins. What you annotate depends on your purpose. One simple way of annotating is to use a coding system, such as a check mark to indicate passages that confirm what you already thought, an X for ones that contradict your previous thinking, a question mark for ones that are puzzling or confusing, an exclamation point or asterisk for ones that strike you as important, and so on.
You might also circle new words that you need to look up. Play the believing and doubting game. Analyze how the text works.
Outline the text paragraph by paragraph. Are there any patterns in the topics the writer addresses? How has the writer arranged ideas, and how does that arrangement develop the topic? Identify patterns. Look for notable patterns in the text: recurring words and their synonyms, repeated phrases and metaphors, and types of sentences.
Does the author rely on any particular writing strategies? Is the evidence offered more opinion than fact? Is there a predominant pattern to how sources are presented? As quotations? In visual texts, are there any patterns of color, shape, and line?
Consider the larger context. What other arguments is he or she responding to? Who is cited? Be persistent with difficult texts.
For texts that are especially challenging or uninteresting, first try skimming the headings, the abstract or introduction, and the conclusion to look for something that relates to knowledge you already have. As a critical reader, you need to look closely at the argument a text makes. Does his or her language include you, or not?
Hint: if you see the word we, do you feel included? So learning to read and interpret visual texts is just as necessary as it is for written texts. Take visuals seriously. When they appear as part of a written text, they may introduce information not discussed elsewhere in the text. It might also help to think about its purpose: Why did the writer include it?
What information does it add or emphasize? What argument is it making? How to read charts and graphs. A line graph, for example, usually contains certain elements: title, legend, x-axis, y-axis, and source information. Figure 1 shows one such graph taken from a sociology textbook.
Other types of charts and graphs include some of these same elements. But the specific elements vary according to the different Legend: Explains the symbols used. Here, colors show the different categories. X-axis: Defines the dependent variable something that changes depending on other factors. Women in the labor force as a percent of the total labor force both men and women age sixteen and over. For example, the chart in Figure 2, from the same textbook, includes elements of both bar and line graphs to depict two trends at once: the red line shows the percentage of women who were in the US labor force from to , and the blue bars show the percentage of US workers who were women during that same period.
Both trends are shown in two-year increments. To make sense of this chart, you need to read the title, the y-axis labels, and the labels and their definitions carefully. Research Research is formalized curiosity.
It is poking and prying with a purpose. We search the web for information about a new computer, ask friends about the best place to get coffee, try on several pairs of jeans before deciding which ones to buy.
Will you need to provide background information? What kinds of evidence will your audience find persuasive? What attitudes do they hold, and how can you best appeal to them? If so, which media will best reach your audience, and how will they affect the kind of information you search for?
Is there a due date? How much time will your project take, and how can you best schedule your time in order to complete it? If the assignment offers only broad guidelines, identify the requirements and range of possibilities, and define your topic within those constraints. As you consider topics, look to narrow your focus to be specific enough to cover in a research paper.
Reference librarians can direct you to the most appropriate reference works, and library catalogs and databases provide sources that have been selected by experts. General encyclopedias and other reference works can provide an overview of your topic, while more specialized encyclopedias cover subjects in greater depth and provide other scholarly references for further research.
Some databases include documentation entries in several styles that you can simply copy and paste. Generate a list of questions beginning with What? Who should determine when and where fracking can be done?
Should fracking be expanded? Select one question, and use it to help guide your research. Drafting a tentative thesis. Here are three tentative thesis statements, each one based on a previous research question about fracking: By injecting sand, water, and chemicals into rock, fracking may pollute drinking water and air.
The federal government should strictly regulate the production of natural gas by fracking. Fracking can greatly increase our supplies of natural gas, but other methods of producing energy should still be pursued. A tentative thesis will help guide your research, but you should be ready to revise it as you continue to learn about your subject and consider many points of view. Which sources you turn to will depend on your topic.
For a report on career opportunities in psychology, you might interview someone working in the field. Primary sources are original works, such as historical documents, literary works, eyewitness accounts, diaries, letters, and lab studies, as well as your own original field research. Secondary sources include scholarly books and articles, reviews, biographies, and other works that interpret or discuss primary sources.
Whether a source is considered primary or secondary sometimes depends on your topic and purpose. Scholarly and popular sources. Popular sources, on the other hand, are written for a general audience, and while they may discuss scholarly research, they are more likely to summarize that research than to report on it in detail.
Catchy, provocative titles usually signal that a source is popular, not scholarly. Scholarly sources are written by authors with academic credentials; popular sources are most often written by journalists or staff writers. Includes an abstract. Multiple authors who are academics. Author not an academic. Consider how much prior knowledge readers are assumed to have.
Are specialized terms defined, and are the people cited identified in some way? Look as well at the detail: scholarly sources describe methods and give more detail, often in the form of numerical data; popular sources give less detail, often in the form of anecdotes. Scholarly sources are published by academic journals, university presses, and professional organizations such as the Modern Language Association; popular sources are published by general interest magazines such as Time or Fortune or trade publishers such as Norton or Penguin.
Scholarly journal articles often begin with an abstract or summary of the article; popular magazine articles may include a tag line giving some sense of what the article covers, but less than a formal summary. Scholarly sources have URLs that end in. Keep in mind that searching requires flexibility, both in the words you use and in the methods you try. For some topics, you might find specialized reference works such as the Film Encyclopedia or Dictionary of Philosophy, which provide in-depth information on a single field or topic and can often lead you to more specific sources.
Many reference works are also online, but some may be available only in the library. Wikipedia can often serve as a starting point for preliminary research and includes links to other sources, but since its information can be written and rewritten by anyone, make sure to consult other reference works as well. You can find bibliographies in many scholarly articles and books.
Check with a reference librarian for help finding bibliographies on your research topic. You can search the catalog by author, title, subject, or keyword. Many books in the catalog are also available online, and some may be downloaded to a computer or mobile device.
Indexes list articles by topics; databases usually provide full texts or abstracts. While some databases and indexes are freely available online, most must be accessed through a library. EBSCOhost provides databases of abstracts and complete articles from periodicals and government documents. InfoTrac offers full-text articles from scholarly and popular sources, including the New York Times. JSTOR archives many scholarly journals but not current issues.
Humanities International Index contains bibliographies for over 2, humanities journals. MLA International Bibliography indexes scholarly articles on modern languages, literature, folklore, and linguistics.
PsycINFO indexes scholarly literature in psychology. Because it is so vast and dynamic, however, finding information can be a challenge. Google, Bing, Yahoo! Yippy, Dogpile, and SurfWax let you use several search sites simultaneously. They are best for searching broadly; use a single site to obtain the most precise results. For peer-reviewed academic writing in many disciplines, try Google Scholar; or use Scirus for scientific, technical, and medical documents.
Following are a few of the many resources available on the web. You can find information put together by specialists at The Voice of the Shuttle a guide to online resources in the humanities ; the WWW Virtual Library a catalog of websites on numerous subjects, compiled by subject specialists ; or in subject directories such as those provided by Google and Yahoo!
News sites. Many newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV stations have websites that provide both up-to-the-minute information and also archives of older news articles. Through Google News and NewsLink, for example, you can access current news worldwide, and Google News Archive Search has files extending back to the s. Government sites. Many government agencies and departments maintain websites where you can find government reports, statistics, legislative information, and other resources.
Audio, video, and image collections. Your library likely subscribes to various databases where you can find and download audio, video, and image files. AP Images provides access to photographs taken for the Associated Press; Artstor is a digital library of images; Naxos Music Library contains more than 60, recordings. Digital archives. You can find primary sources from the past, including drawings, maps, recordings, speeches, and historic documents at sites maintained by the National Archives, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, and others.
Three kinds of field research that you might consider are interviews, observations, and surveys. If you wish to record the interview, ask for permission. Some writing projects are based on information you get by observing something. How does this observation relate to your research goals, and what do you expect to find? Also note details about the setting.
Then analyze your notes, looking for patterns. What did you learn? Did anything surprise or puzzle you? One way of gathering information from a large number of people is to use a questionnaire. Multiple-choice questions will be easier to tally than openended questions. Be sure to give a due date and to say thank you. A Google search on the same topic produces over ten thousand hits. How do you decide which ones to read? This chapter presents advice on evaluating potential sources and reading those you choose critically.
What kinds of sources will they find persuasive? How well does it relate to your purpose? What would it add to your work? To see what it covers, look at the title and at any introductory material such as a preface or an abstract. Has the author written other works on this subject? Is he or she known for a particular position on it? If the credentials are not stated, you might do a search to see what else you can learn about him or her.
Does the source cover various points of view or advocate only one perspective? Does its title suggest a certain slant? If the source is a book, what kind of company published it; if an article, what kind of periodical did it appear in?
Books published by university presses and articles in scholarly journals are reviewed by experts before they are published. But books and articles written for the general public do not undergo rigorous review or fact-checking.
Is the site maintained by an organization, an interest group, a government agency, or an individual? Look for clues in the URL:. Can you understand it? Texts written for a general audience might be easier to understand but not authoritative enough for academic work.
Scholarly texts will be more authoritative but may be hard to comprehend. Check to see when books and articles were published and when websites were last updated. If a site lists no date, see if links to other sites still work; if not, the site is probably too dated to use.
If so, you can probably assume that some other writers regard it as trustworthy. Is there a bibliography that might lead you to other sources? How current or authoritative are the sources it cites? Pay attention to what they say, to the reasons and evidence they offer to support what they say, and to whether they address viewpoints other than their own. Assume that each author is responding to some other argument.
Does he or she present several different positions or argue for a particular position? What arguments is he or she responding to? How thoroughly does he or she consider alternative arguments? Does it seem objective, or does the content or language reveal a particular bias? Are opposing views considered and treated fairly? Does it support a different argument altogether?
Does it represent a position you need to address? Is the main purpose to inform readers about a topic or to argue a certain point? This chapter focuses on going beyond what your sources say to inspire and support what you want to say.
What makes them so strong? Please Elaborate — Ehsaan Israr. Well, full path means if you enter direct url to pdf into browser address bar, you can access it. Show 2 more comments. Sign up or log in Sign up using Google.
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They packaged the community built firmware with some extra tools to get started easily. Here are the steps I used to run it. Time needed: 10 minutes. I like Sandisk Extreme.
I use Balena Etcher to write the image. It will ask for an admin password because it needs low level access to your SD card. When you boot it, it will show a lot of scrolling text and take a while.
Launch VS Code and click the extension marketplace icon in the left icon bar. Go to the file browser in the left icon bar in VS Code.
Select your ev3 device. It worked! Remove all of the text from the main. The first line — the shebang — tells the software which Python to use. The default is micropython, but you can replace it by! The next few line import handy classes for controlling the brick. Now pressing F5 on the keyboard runs this code on the brick. Neat, huh? So you can quickly develop and debug. Or connect a gamepad and remote control your robot. You can also read the complete documentation for programming your robot.
I love your creations — not just great engineering but stylish too! I wondered if you might have any ideas? All I want is to is pass data in plain text files or just as output from the MicroPython code to and from the Brick on the fly. For example I might want to record the output from one of the Mindstorm devices such as the colour sensor, send this to my computer and plot it on a graph or feed it into Excel or some other software or script.
I can write such ouputs into lists, tuples or strings and they will display in the VSC output window, so clearly the information is already making the journey from Brick to PC anyway, I just need to be able to capture it. This is the generally accepted interpretation and no purpose is served by twisting it and interpreting it in other ways. The harvest seasons Dr. Stein next examines the mention of the two crops in the course of the year by Megasthenes who speaks also of the fertility of the soil and a double rainfall, one in the winter season and the other in summer.
Wheat, rice, sesame and millet are mentioned. Megasthenes who had heard of the agricultural industry from report — because there is no statement that he went into the country-parts outside the Capital -— could not furnish more details than these. Kautilya mentions the crops of the rainy season and crops which could be raised in other seasons also. The fertility of the soil and the raising of two crops, summer and winter, can be easily proved from the Arthashastra and especially the chapter entitled sitadhyaksa.
In the Arthashastra however there is no mention of Pataliputra. Strabo on the other hand mentions wooden buildings all round, which is not a fact. Rhys Davids speaks of fortifications in India built of stone walls in the 6th century B. Kautilya refers unmistakably to walls of stone. Therefore Strabo could not be credited with full knowledge of facts about India. There were certainly wooden portions in the buildings.
This is true even of houses built today. Law has shown that houses of wood were indeed common in the fourth century B. An attempt has been made by Stein to compare the description of Pataliputra with that found in the Chanakya Niti. It may be that Kautilya describes the fortress, its construction and plan from actual conditions, and not as mere theory.
On that account it does not stand to reason that Kautilya has purely drawn his materials for the construction of a fortress from Pataliputra. It may be that Pataliputra served him as the basis for constructing his theory of a fortress. But we cannot expect Kautilya who writes a general treatise on statecraft to follow the details and measurements of Pataliputra. Though the Arthashastra was for the time being intended for Chandragupta, it was a textbook on Polity for all time, and for all kings, and for all places.
Therefore Kautilya could not have prescribed only one standard the model of the fortress at Pataliputra. On the other hand he mentions different kinds of fortresses such as nadidurga, vanadurga with respective measurements in details. Some may have four gates and some twelve gates. Some may have one trench around and others three trenches. It all depends on the environs and eminence where such fortress is erected. For the construction of a fortress is purely dependent on topographical and geographical circumstances.
By sheer accident, some measurements or details of Megasthenes may coincide with the Chanakya Niti description, as for example, Pataliputra in the form of a square, the wall of Arrian to the parikrama of the Chanakya Niti, etc. On this account we cannot proceed to compare the two because Kautilya is certainly not describing the fort at Pataliputra but is describing how and in what manner a fort could be erected at such and such a place.
Connected with this is the theory that as Kautilya does not mention Pataliputra he could not have been the Minister of Chandragupta. It is very probable that there was no occasion for Kautilya to mention his Capital city by this name. His purpose was to write a scientific treatise on administration which his King Chandragupta and his successors as well might use with profit and advantage to themselves.
In such a treatise there would certainly be no occasion for mentioning the city of Pataliputra, and the mere omission of this fact cannot be seriously advanced as an argument for or against establishing the authenticity of the work. Houses and property Megasthenes says that the houses and property of Indians were left generally unguarded.
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